Hunting Enthusiast

Crop damage by wildlife View Country World Report and comments in sections 1-10

Damage to crops by wild animals

Section I General discussions

GM Wani

Ph.D, DVM (Germany)

ISSGAPU FN, FN DAAD

Director Extension Education / SAMETI

Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Kashmir

Shalimar, Srinagar, 191,121

 

 

 

A brief global review to assess the damage caused to crops by wild animals worldwide. The review was sought in response to a recommendation of ICAR Regional Committee No.1, held in October, 2007 at Solan, Hp chaired by the Honorable Director General, ICAR Dr. Mangala Rai opening was chaired by the Honourable Minister of Agriculture of J & K, Jenab Ab. Aziz Zargar.

Author

 

 

 

 

Published by: Director State Agricultural Management and Extension Training Institute of Kashmir (SAMETI-K), SKUAST-K, Shalimar, PO Box 461, GPO, Srinagar.

 

 

Publication No.: 2008 SAMETI/Pub/3/1000/January

 

 

 

POBox: 461, GPO, Srinagar, E. Mail: Wanimohyuddin@yahoo.com

Phone: 0194-2461317,0194-2463460,0194-2463459

Mobile: 09419095342; Residence :0194-2431508, 2435741

 

Introduction:

 

human conflicts of wild animals have been launched since the beginning of human era from Adam and Eve. This conflict of nature by man to hide in caves and was called as "Caveman." Little by little, progress is he who invented Axe and other stone weapons and Iron Ages to frighten the wild animals at first. Later, hunted for their lives. This feeling of uncertainty and fear of wild animals and wild reduced with the invention of fire. Sharp weapons made of bone and iron. These early weapons were the beginning of this conflict, the human animal conflict.

Thirty thousand years ago, human population increased to 6 million. They were still hunters. With the invention of fire, set fire to a large majority of sanctuaries, wildlife and fear that emigrated from their neighborhood. Many forests, hills and difficult terrain were still beyond the reach of man three thousand years ago, although the human population has increased to 60 million euros. The man has already started primitive agriculture. He had made his land and wildlife fear he left his habitat closure and home invasion for fresh. The man had already craving for fur, horns, ornaments and other forest resources. He invented many ways to frighten all wildlife. He became a "danger" not only for wildlife but for their own species, half ecological environment and biodiversity.

Three hundred years ago, industrialized crop production and produces enough food to nearly 600 million people. This continued for 30 years and is now feeding six billion people. Today we have a world food security for 7.5 million dollars. Human Progress food safety resulted in a reduction of all wild species, except, therefore, the origin of the wild-life conflict is the desire of man more food, more luxury, or sometimes fun to hunt or skin. This reduction in wildlife reserves and now open conflict came into being.

Many wildlife-human conflicts have occurred in the Gir forests of Gujarat, UP Rajaji National Park and many other states where the forest land became farmland. Elephants, wild boars, monkeys, squirrels, deer, birds like crows, parrots, wild dogs, jackal, gaur, Sambur, langurs, hens, peas, neilgai, hippos, biats, blackbirds, rodents, wild pigs, wild species, primates, beetles, foxes, pigeons, wild pigs and a variety of other species damage crops. Carnivores, even attack humans as well. These attacks are for the search for food or habitat loss. Many such incidents became known in Jammu and Kashmir. The leopod bear and other wildlife are the reduction in number. Their habitats used by humans.

The human causalities due to carnivorous species, but herbivores cause human and economic losses too. The crop damage by wildlife has been the new threat to agricultural productivity worldwide. This also concerns us in Asia and India. This review seeks to determine:

1. Extent of crop damage.

2. Nature of crop damage

3. Ways and means to avoid these losses.

4. Strategic planning to drive a line between the conservation of wildlife and especially agricultural economy in India.

 

Abstracts and strategic Executive elementary schools: [Ease]

1. Importance

The species that cause crop damage ranges of wild birds elephant monkeys, squirrels, deer, parrots, wild dogs, foxes, deer and many others like Neilgai. On average this crop damage by wildlife amounts to U.S. $ 961 per hectare. It's more than an Indian peasant earns in a year ACTH. Therefore, these estimates of damage are spectacular and economically important.

2. Human Elephant Conflict (HEC):

i) economic loss:

Among the crop raiding elephants is common. Crops near their home ranges more damaged. Elephants damage crops ranges were twice as big as that did not damage crops. Thus, proximity on crops near their ranks are likely to damage crops. train accidents elephants instigate damage to crop or human. Indonesia saw raids by elephants frequently on crops. Human elephant conflict (HEC) is common and poses serious problems in Africa. Both groups of men and attacks family groups were observed. HEC losses in West Bengal were worth Rs 3.2 Crosas. This damage occurred in kms.radius 3368sq. The numerical code elephant was 62 only. Assam observes damages loggers raid by Asian elephants and wild elephants damage crops in flocks of 10 to 13 individuals or large elephant herds comprising 1950 to 1974. In the district of Darjeeling only in an area of 200 kms. East to west in the past two decades, 277 houses were demolished by elephants, killing 66 people in five districts. As a result of this conflict of 23 elephants were killed. In 2001, economic losses of the order of fifty thousand dollars U.S. was estimated to be inflicted by elephants. This scenario requires global action to be taken to reduce such damage. The review of measures around the world suggest The following are few studies to be undertaken and the resulting measures to be taken to reduce such damage.

ii) Loss Mitigation:

Methods developed and used to mitigate crop damage by elephants was to scare the animals by the drum beating, or even firegracks gun fire. Crop protection by fences or even using electric fences or increasing the poles and wiring can be effective. chemical deterrents base, and electric fences have been found for reducing crop damage. high-voltage electric fences with energizing the west have kept wild animals damage crops but this preposition can not be applicable in areas where even the houses have no access to electricity. However, this method can act as a limit time separating wild and domestic habitats. This would prevent intrusions to foci vatic internal Sly. Protection fields, dig trenches, modifying cropping patterns have a possibility to reduce the conflicts of the Elephant Man or Human elephant conflicts. A 30% open space between the two habitats can help prevent HEC. This means that the distance to be maintained between fields and elephant habitats. A proper investigation on these lines is needed. A network system based on geographic information system (GIS) with a resolution of 25km2 can help make cost-effective source of data to analyze these situations. There is an urgent need to identify spatial predictors of HEC. On the basis of this study may suggest or implement mitigation strategies, warning of attacks, the use of barriers and deterrents. The utility methods could be assessed for land use and livelihood strategies to limit HEC.

3. Dear Nilgai-Damages damages.

A survey of 2,500 farms in the United Kingdom found that 69% (n = 192) grain crops were damaged by deer. This damage cost £ 500 per year per farm. Damage varied with the density of deer. In the U.S. Deer damage also made for loss of crops, damage to scenery, car accidents and damage to property. alongwith damage Nilgai deer damage are common in India as well. Acacia tree cover in the area is generally used as a refuge for Nilgai. We have found extensive damage to crops in Mathura (CIRG) and visits the area near Nilgai. Grazing and browsing Nilgai cause losses on farms. This is considered as a threat mammals crops by farmers. This behavior of ozone cause injury to the young tree, so valuable to growth of trees in Indian semi-arid farms.

Damage by deer corn in the U.S. amounts to 6.6.% Per hectare. In a area where a 125-hectare farm owned by an average of 55 hectares were used for corn. There is a loss of 6.6% of the product which is a loss huge economic. Similar damage deer in Ontario, Portugal, Japan and South America and elsewhere have been reviewed. In Virginia also a 1506 study on agriculture growers farmers found 58% had experienced Deer damages. Ways and means to prevent such attacks on crops have been reviewed. Most of the possible measures to be adopted are similar to those described for the elephants (HEC).

4. Other mammals and birds damage

Mono damage corn, yams and other crops. It is suggested to reduce or change cropping pattern or alternating with non-agricultural activities location near the monkey habitat. Various methods are reviewed. Bat damage, crop damage Hygo Japan, the wine grape damage by bats in Andra Pradesh, India have been studied. assessment of economic loss of crops has been reviewed in these pages. Clover weed instead of can reduce damage to mammals. Alley cropping of black walnuts helped to save soybean and corn crop damage. Of pesticides and minimize wildlife damage to their attacks, electrical boxes and other enclosures to help prevent such damage. Can I use harmful means to save the crops, need a strategy adequate to preserve the ecology and biodiversity. Both crops and wild animals need security and conservation. A management strategy is needed to safeguard wildlife and humans alike. A policy framework is intended.

Blackbird damage to crops in the U.S. amounts to 5-8 million. A considerable amount of crores of rupees have been estimated damages in the form of crops, human and material losses from wild animals, birds and other rodents in India. Many measures to reduce these losses are necessary and have been reviewed.

 

 

 

 

 

Review

1. Wild animals damage crops

For elephants wild boar, porcupines, rheus macaque monkey (Macaca mulatta), white-bellied squirrels, barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak), chest parakeet red (Psittacula Alexandri) and wild dogs are wild animals damaging crops.

The methods developed and used to mitigate human-wildlife conflict include scaring animals, tending the crops, and with a sort of scarecrow and traps (Miah et al 2001).

Accurately estimating damage to crops caused by wild animals (raccoons, white-tailed deer and coyotes) often requires making process of labor. Variable area transect (VAT), sampling has been identified as a potential savings of alternative work for sampling quadrant (Engerman et al 2002).

 

2. Human life conflict Wild

agricultural landowners suffer in the form of damage to crops, livestock and other property. Some agencies Wildlife maintained reduction and compensation programs. A model of crop damage inflicted deer used to facilitate agency decisions regarding deer densities and distribution, abatement use, and provide compensation. The model is applied to claims for compensation at the field level in Wisconsin, United States. The results are consistent with the theory, (J Yoder, 2002).

 

3. Economic crops due to the loss of wildlife

concept of people were discerned through participatory discussions covering 419 households distributed among 10 villages in the buffer zone. Traditional uncodified rights of local people were substantially reduced by interventions policies in place since 1860. Local people and tourists have been excluded from the nucleus with a surface area of 625 km2 since 1982. The deterioration of the rural economy due to damage to crops and livestock by wildlife and, termination of opportunities of income from wild medicinal plant resources and tourism in the core area were the main negative impacts of conservation policy felt by more than 90% of respondents. The average annual economic loss per household was estimated at Rs.1285, Rs. 1195 and Rs.156 due to damage caused by wildlife to food crops, fruit trees and beehives, respectively, Rs. because of the ban collection of wild medicinal plants for the marketing of 1587 and Rs.7904 because of the ban on tourism in the core zone. The authority granted Reserve compensation for livestock killed by wildlife, but was only 5% of the market value of cattle died as assessed by the people. People do not cherish the benefits current reserve management in the form of wages for carrying out afforestation work, partial compensation for livestock depredation and availability solar energy devices, wool, spinning and devices. Approximately 95% of respondents identified empowerment of local population regarding the attainment income from timber from the dead / diseased trees in community forests, income from medicinal plants in the buffer zone and opening the core zone for tourism as potential development options. Improvement of the rural economy, the fundamental concern of the local population has not received much attention and enforcement of protection by the reserve management. There is a need for policy development and management actions that serve the economic interests local population, together with improved environmental conservation objective (Maikhuri et al 2001).

 

4. Selection of crops

The injury was minor (34%) in the carrot crop experimental multiple carrots as the sole sown crop (62% of damage). Staggered plantings of canola, which produces flowers continuously, was attracting growing more effective green manure crops tested. carrot producers should use electric fences or 2.4 m woven wire fences, perhaps in combination with canola plantings staggered to reduce predation Carrot (Schwab et al 2001).

The Colver, rather than fertilized grass is more effective in AFA cover crop against damage caused by migratory geese. The grass should be maintained to promote the growth of clover, which probably involves frequent cutting, but no fertilizer. Further research is needed on the replenishment rate of clover in the winter season and the potential benefits of Leys clover for wildlife other (McKay et al 2001). Strip cropping and black walnut percent corn and soybean rotation can prevent the damage of the animals. proportion 1:10 tree crops can help (Godsey, 2000).

 

5. Elephas human conflicts:

Conflicts between elephants (Elephas maximus) and humans are made in the Rajaji National Park (RNP), Uttar Pradesh, one of eleven designated reserves in India to conserve Asian elephants. Elephant-human. RNP Conflicts in 1996-1999 were studied, and all humans and elephants deaths or injuries caused by conflict were recorded. The impact of human colonies in the movement of the elephant was studied in 18 villages along 17 km of the southern border of the study site and 4 of the people in the corridor Chilla-Motichur. Three male and four female elephants radio were followed 1-2 years. Primary conflicts including crop raiding, competition between humans and elephants vegetation, and mortality of elephants due to train accidents. Adult males that raided crops had home ranges twice as large as adult men who did not raid crops. Elephants only damaged crops from fields that occurred within their home ranges. Field trials based chemicals in deterrents and electric fencing should be tried to reduce crop damage. train speeds should be reduced to avoid accidental elephant mortality (Williams et al 2001).

 

Wild Elephant damages:

A quick people and field assessments, the survey data showed. Elephants raided crops at the rate of 0.53 per day elephants in Indonesia. The frequency of crop raiding was related to the type of vegetation along the edge of the park, the size and presence of rivers, and the distance to the Elephant Park Training Center (ETC), which houses some 150 elephants in captivity. Wild elephants damaged at least 450,000 m2 of corn, rice, cassava, beans and other crops annually, and about 900 coconut, banana and other evergreens in the study area. Elephants killed or wounded 24. Villagers try to reduce elephant damage save the fields, digging trenches between the park and its fields, and modifying their cropping patterns. Elephants, human conflict decreases the likelihood of support from local people for conservation efforts. Suggested approaches consist of elephant trenches, electric fences, external support to the affected villages, and compensation to villagers for the damage caused (Nyhus et al 2000).

This study explores the conflicts land use in southern Kajiado District, Kenya. The results of household surveys of farmers and ranchers in 1977 and 1996 to examine changes in land management strategies are compared. The conflict reflects a competition over access to scarce land and water resources between herding, agriculture and wildlife are the reason of crop damage. This man-animal conflict needs to understand the conditions that have created conflicts today (Compbell et al 2000).

Therefore suggested that 30% open space is used as a basis for stratifying division of low shrubs in categories of use and high use to estimate the density deer. The proportions of each type can be measured from aerial photographs Grid (J Latham 2000).

 

 

Human elephant conflict

Man-elephant conflict (HEC) in Africa occurs where two species coincide, and poses grave problems wildlife managers, local communities and elephants alike. Mitigation requires an understanding of the underlying data patterns and processes. Although patterns Temporary HEC are relatively predictable, spatial variation has shown few universal trends, making it difficult to predict where conflict will take place. Crop raids were subdivided into incidents involving only male elephants or family groups. A relatively fine resolution, systematic method in grid is used to map the locations of conflict incidents, and spatial relationships with underlying variables were analyzed using correlation and regression analysis logistics. crop raiding are grouped in various conflict zones. The occurrence and intensity could be predicted on the basis of the cultivated area and, for groups of elephant male, proximity to the solution of the main. Instead, injuries and death of the incidents were less predictable but correlated with proximity to roads. A system of grid-based geographic information (GIS) with a resolution of data source using cost effective 25km2 combined with simple statistical tools, was capable of identifying spatial predictors of HEC, with resolutions finer spatial autocorrelation in risk analysis. Synthesis and application. These results suggest that the spatial correlation of HEC can be identified, regardless of the sex of the elephants in question. Moreover, the method described here is completely transferable to other sites for comparative analysis of HEC. The use of these results to map vulnerability will enable the development and deployment of appropriate mitigation strategies conflict, such as surveillance, early warning systems, barriers and deterrents. The utility of such methods and their strategic deployment should be evaluated together alternatives for land use and livelihood strategies that limit cultivation within the elephant (Sitati et al 2003).

Human conflicts Elephant (HEC) in West Bengal was an economic loss worth 3.2 billion rupees. This damage occurred in 3368 sq km of radio inhibition 62 elephants (Singh et al 2002)

 

6. Kerala Poll

damage to crops by wild animals in Kerala, India, was studied from 1993 to 1996. The data were collected from the offices of the Kerala Forest Department, field survey and the intensive study area Marayur, Idukki District. Forty and five species of crops were destroyed by wild animals in Kerala, the species commonly destroyed by wild animals were rice, coconut plam, banana, cassava, areca nut, coffee, plam oil, pepper, jack tree, mulberry and Manago. The main animals involved in crop damage were the elephants (Elephas maximus), gaur (Bos gaurus) sambar (Cervus unicolor), wild boar (Sus scrofa), the top monkey (Macaca radiate langur), common (Presbytis entellus), blacknaped hare (Lepus nigricollis) and birds Pea (Pavo cristatus). Among these, elephants and wild boar took the maximum damage. Of the total damages claimed by farmers, only 8.2% was sanctioned by the Kerala Forest Department. The higher damage of crops (30%) occurred in the forest ranges to relevant North Circle: pineapple (47%) sweet potatoes (47%), tapioca (42%), Alocasia (39%), beans (25%) and bananas (23%) registered the highest percentage of damage. In the area of intensive study in Marayur, 28 species of crops were damaged and more damage was during the summer months. The maximum damage was caused by elephant (72%), followed by gaur (62%) , Sambar (17%) and wild boar (16%). Tiger (Panthera tigris), the panther (leopard) (Panthera pardus) and wild dog (Conine alpinus) were cattle lifters main in the state. A total of 31 deaths and 64 injuries caused by wildlife of the state's records for the period 1983-1993. Thirteen indigenous methods to control crop damage had been identified. high voltage electric fence energizer using were effective to stop elephants and other herbivores enter the fields of agriculture. crop damage is linked to the cropping pattern and location of agricultural fields. Short and long term measures are needed the short term to prevent crop damage discussed (Jayson EA, 1999).

7. Bird damage to crops

The use of nonlethal methods to prevent damage to crops by birds have been reported. Blueberry damage Bombycillidae cedar (Bombycilla cedrotun were minimized. (Avery et al 2002).

 

8. Wild Bird damage

 

In the northern Great Plains of the United States, conflicts between birds red-winged black (Agelaius phoeniceus) and the sunflower (Helianthus annuus) growers have intensified since late 1960 due to production expansion commercial sunflowers. We have studied the potential effects of the population suppression of up to 2 million red-winged blackbirds annually under a 5-year program harassment in the spring with DRC-1339 (March-April-choloro methalalanine) of rice treated. It also examined whether lethal control, in combination with current levels of management breeding habitat, it would be cost-effective in reducing predation in sunflower crop in late summer. Assessed the cost-benefit ration for four scenarios involving sacrifice (1) variable annual cullus, not more than 2 million birds, with and without density compensation (ie, a positive response dependent density) on survival of adults and (2) the mass slaughter of two million birds each year with and without density compensation. We constructed a population model red-winged blackbird represented as a matrix based on the age and calibrated to stable growth. We assume a total population of 27 million birds on 01 April (Week 1), representing staging of red-winged blackbird breeding population in eastern South Dakota and migration in each scenario Dakota.Under North sacrifice, we reduced the population stable red-winged blackbird (also for females and males) and a population projection up to 23 weeks of the annual cycle (September 2). Then evaluated management costs associated with losses arising from sunflower crop, assuming $ 0.07 per bird in damage and 4% loss to other factors. Variable annual sacrifices, probably biologically more realistic model scenarios, turned the annual transfer of 1 240 560 (SE = 12 328) of bird density compensation and 1.23162 million (SE = 28 811) of the birds without density compensation, the costs and benefits of 1:3.6 and 1:2.3, respectively. Annual rates intrinsic to the population model during the period of five years ranged from 1-4 to 4.8%. Given the potential variability in the efficacy of sacrifice and the combination of the direct and indirect, we hold that the gains made to producers of sunflower blackbiards lethal control of red-winged through the spring of bait, in combination with current efforts of non-lethal management, which is likely to be negligible (Blackwell et al 2003).

The effectiveness of casein hydrolyzed (HC) and retail products containing HC in reducing deer damage to trees and shrubs are found in field experiments made in USA during 2004-05. The results of the experiments indicate the suitability of HC as a deer repellent. Technical grade HC completely eliminated the damage to navigation evergreen shrubs (Gaultheria Shallon) and conifers (Thuja plicata). Retail sources of HC were not as effective as the pure protein hydrolyzate (Kimball et al 2005).

 

 

9. Blackbird damage

The economic impact of blackbirds can be serious for rice producers in the United States. One approach to management of this damage is the application of chemical deterrence birds for cultivation. Previous trials pilot suggests that the potential of caffeine is provided as repellent safe, economical bird. In this study, feeding trials with caged female red-winged blackbirds and thrushes brown head men confirmed that a fee treatment of 25,000 ppm of caffeine in the seeds of rice reduces consumption by up to 76%. Trials with a mixed flock of blackbirds in a flight pen resulted in 0.2 as only 4% loss of rice caffine treated compared with 43% loss of untreated rice. . Field trials of a treatment of 10 000 ppm of caffeine in Louisiana showed> 90% of treated rice seed remained without consuming caffeine on 2 and 3 of the study, while blackbirds consume over 80% of the seed untreated. As rice seed treatment to deter blackbirds, caffeine seems to be efficient, economical and environmentally safe, although additional evidence of toxicity water is desirable. Improvements in the formulation will be needed to make the compound practical for general purpose agricultural spray and extend membership of caffeine to rice seeds in the field ((Avery et al 2005).

10. Ciervo damage

A questionnaire was distributed to more than 2,500 farms to see the damage caused by deer in lowland crops, trees and vegetation. The results of the questionnaire showed that 69% (n = 1192) of respondents had deer farmers on their farms and Roe and fallow were most frequent species. Under the current deer farms, cereals were the crops damaged most commonly (44%), but only 15% of these farmers claimed that the annual cost of damage to cereals exceeded 500 pounds each year for the whole farm. Validation of the evaluations were based two visits to assess deer damage to the crop, with a sort of deer / evaluation of the density during the March assessment and evaluation of performance and grain quality during the August evaluation. Respondents were generally accurate density and species of deer reported. The rate of exploitation suffered a damage attributable to deer was very variable, generally being higher during the first assessment to the second. The figures obtained by the loss of performance were generally low, farmers were poor in estimating the economic impact of the damage compared with deer for the validation of data, but a number of parameters may have changed in the two years between the distribution of the questionnaire and validation, including changes in deer density, crop rotation, and the sharp drop in grain prices, which may explain some of the inaccuracies. There were no statistically significant relationships between assessments of damage deer and the loss of performance, whether for species or individuals of both species combined. The relationship between deer damage in the assessment of harvest and density Roe deer was significant (Post et al, 2001).

Wildlife managers must consider public preferences for levels wildlife population to determine management policies. 849 farmers, hunters and the general public in Maryland. USA, were surveyed in 1996 to identify their preferences to increase, maintain, or reduce deer population numbers. Using a theoretical framework of random utility, the factors that explain preferences as a place of residence, socioeconomic characteristics, landscape damage, agricultural yield loss and vehicle accidents were analyzed. The results suggest that most people benefit from the deer and want to keep the deer population at present levels. Other characteristics such as age, income, education, and place of residence will have little or no impact on preferences. Property damage, crop loss, damage the landscape, and accidents Car seems to be the major concern (Curtis et al 2001).

 

11. Sika deer in Japan population

Sika deer Cervus nippon population in eastern Hokkaido, Japan, increased rapidly during 1990-1998. This increase seems to have stopped in 1999-2000, probably due to increased hunting and nuisance control. The period of rapid growth was associated with a rapid increase disproportionately to the compensation for deer damage to crops. We studied the changes in diet during the period 1990-2000, as reflected by stable isotope ratios of C and N in the tooth of collagen. Our hypothesis is that isotope ratios demonstrate dietary shift relation to population levels and / or time, and that changes in isotopic ratios are in line with the increase in individual consumption levels pasture highest population, delta 13C isotope ratios of collagen in tooth sika 3 years of age, indicated a diet dominated C3 plants during the entire period, and other forage grasses of the pasture and the dwarf bamboo Sasa nipponica (the main crop and forest understory plants, respectively) important elements. There was a significant decrease in delta 13 C isotope ratio during 1990-2000 in both men and women, the delta 15N values showed no trend over time for men, but increased over time in women. Population rates (sightings per unit effort, vomit) were correlated negative delta 13C female, and a positive correlation with delta 15N women, the values indicating a change in diet during the period, especially among women. This change may be related to population and / or levels of extraction, in particular the rapid increase in the removal of nuisances and control women hunting during the period. The data are consistent with a relative increase in grass pasture consumption per individual in the highest levels of the population, however, other Data explanations are equally plausible. Possible changes in diet and other factors that influence the shift in isotope ratios are discussed. Although statistically significant, the magnitude of change in diet, yet it seemed small, and did not provide evidence to justify modifying the current policy of limiting damage to crops by reducing population managed about 25% of peak levels (Halley et al 2006).

 

12. White tail deer damage

White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) can cause more damage than any other species of wildlife. These damages include crop loss, collisions of cars and aircraft, transfer of diseases, environmental degradation and destruction of ornamental plantings. A practical method of controlling deer damage is the use of exclusion fences. The cost relatively high labor and materials necessary to build effective fences has limited most applications to the protection of orchards, vegetable farms, other high value resources, and mitigation of human health and safety risks. Improvements in fence technology resulting in less expensive, yet effective have been extended by the use of hand to control the damage caused by deer. Near typically installed for managing white-tailed deer damage include wire or plastic mesh, electrified steel wire of high resistance, and electrified polyrope polytape or fence. They reviewed the scientific literature on fencing to determine which fence designs would be the most effective for excluding deer in a variety of situations (Vercauteren et al 2006).

Fences to protect agricultural, natural resources, or other type of deer (Odocoileus spp.) can be expensive and potential benefits of fencing are difficult to quantify. A rational method is needed to help evaluate whether fencing can be profitable and that the fence design will be optimal for particular applications. They describe a simulation interactive, dynamic model that performs economic analysis and predicts the economic benefits associated with fences for crops in relation to the area and perimeter protected the plot, the value of the crop, the percentage of crops damaged by deer annually prior to fencing, efficacy of the fence, and the costs of materials and labor fence. Model users can adjust these variables to suit your individual needs and situations. Through the implementation of a series of simulations, users the model can answer questions directly related to the effectiveness and cost-effective fence (Vercauteren K et al 2006).

13. Corn wild animal damage

U.S. corn damage is estimated at 6.6 per hac due to wildlife. Deer white-tailed wild animal is responsible for the loss. The average farmer-owned hacters were 125, of which 55 hectares were planted with corn. (Tzilkowsi et al 2002).

 

14. Deer damage

Deer (Odocoileus spp.) can cause substantial damage to agricultural crops, resulting in economic losses for producers. They developed a device activated frightening deer bio-acoustics to reduce white-tailed deer (O, virginianus) damage in agricultural fields. The device considers an infrared detection system activated an audio component that broadcast recorded distress calls and alarm deer. They tested the device against unprotected controls in cornfields during flowering stage of growth, flowering in July 2001. The device was not effective in reducing damage: the number of tracks, indices (F1, 4 = 0.02) maize yield (F1, 9 = 1.27, P = 0.289), and estimated damage levels (F1, 10 = 0.87, P = 0.374) did not differ between experimental and control fields. The size (F2, 26 = 1.00, P = 0.380), location (F2, 25 = 0.39, P = 0.684), and percent overlap (F2, 25 = 0.20, P = 0.818) of using radiomarked female deer areas did not differ between during and after periods of treatment. They concluded that the device activated by deer bio-acoustic was not effective in protecting cornfields in this study, however, the device can be more effective in small areas, such as gardens or for high value crops that do not grow tall enough to provide a protective cover (Gilsdorf et al 2004).

White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) cause millions of dollars in damage to agricultural crops annually. They tested the effectiveness of propane and electronic detonators Guards (Pocatello Supply Depot, Pocatello, ID). To reduce deer damage in corn fields during the flowering-flowering stage of growth. Track-count indices (F2, 7 = 0.70, P = 0.532), the yield of maize (F2, 6 = 0.14, P = 0.873), and estimated damage levels (F2, 12 = 1.45 P = 0.272) did not differ between experimental and control fields. The size (F2, 11 = 0.08, P = 0.924), location (F2, 9 = 0.30, P = 0.750), and percent overlap (F2, 9 = 0.46, P = 0.644) of deer use of areas radiomarked woman in the vicinity of experimental fields did not differ between before, during and after 18-day period of treatment. In a related study, propane detonators placed in corn fields in areas of use of 12 radiomarked doe. The deer did not react devices significantly, the size (F2, 17 = 0.08, P = 0.921), location (F2, 22 = 1.37, P = 0.275), and the percentage overlap (F2, 10 = 0.47, P = 0.636) of deer use areas did not differ between before, during and after 14-day period of treatment. They conclude that the detonators propane and electronic guards have limited potential to reduce deer damage to corn, silking flowering (Glisdorf et al 2004l.

A welfare measure of damage to wildlife in Ontario (Canada) crop producers during the 1998 field was. The measure welfare is presented in this study provides a more accurate picture of the losses of wildlife damage to agriculture. Other damage estimates based on the loss Performance overstate the damage that wildlife benefits are calculated on a net basis. The results for the Ontario crop producers in the field indicate that the magnitude the difference between the value of yield loss and the welfare measure of damage is about 50%. This difference indicates that most farmers were willing to tolerate the damage that wildlife experience (Hi et al 2001).

 

15. Grapevine damages

In field trials in 1999-2000 in Gundla Pochampally, Andhra Pradesh, India, the incidence of damage a green vine studied. Visits to the vineyards by bats begain about 45 minutes after sunset and continued foraging until 1 hour before sunrise. The damage only the ripe fruit, and increased throughout the harvest period, the percentage of damage ranged from 0 to 100% (Bhargavi et al, 2001).

 

16. Hippo damage

Introduction document describes the different ecological effects known to result from grazing, movement along roads, and rolling on the common hippopotamus. Hippopotamus amphibian. The study reported was carried out in the Kainji Lake National Park., Nigeria, during periods of dry season of 1991 () and 1992. The method adopted by Agnew, ADQ (East African Wildlife Journal (1966) 4, 38-46) was used to assess foraging hippo hippo tracks at three sites pool. A total of 32 trails were listed, of which 18 were located on the site Kaii hippo pool, while the frequency of use of the strips was also higher in relation to this site with another area. The upward-downward trend in the occupation of the hippo pools dry season water could expose the hippo to cut damage conflicts in peripheral areas.

17. Hygo, Japan, mammals, damage to crops

 

The Hyogo-dwelling mammals consists of seven orders, 17 families and about 40 species. With the exception of Lagomorpha and Artiodactyla, the remaining five orders between them include species that require some form of protection while about 55% of all species except extinct, introduced and wild species. Ecological Information in Hyogo Prefecture has accumulated in a few species necessary protection no recent information from the spatial distribution of water-shrew East, Japanese Leisler at bat and dormouse Japanese, and little information on the Japanese shrew, Japanese horseshoe bat, bat Japanese big feet. bat Schreiber wings folded, the tube-nosed bat in Japan, the multicolored common bat, the Japanese squirrel, small Japanese flying squirrel, Japanese giant flying squirrel, mouse, vole smith harvest and the Japanese badger. The damage and the efforts of the population is also needed in Japanese sika deer and feral pigs to reduce their crop – damage, and overall management in the Japanese black bear, an endangered population, to prevent fatal accident bear man. alteration of habitat due to human activities, however, has affected the population size and spatial distribution of these, Hyogo mammals. Habitat management takes precedence over the damage. fundamental and applied scientific research and understanding of ecology and wildlife management science needs promotion by the public (M Mitani 2000).

18. Mono damage

Forty-seven property owners in Entebbe, Uganda were questioned about the activities of green monkeys on their property. The aim was to investigate the interactions between humans and vervet monkeys in an agricultural area adjacent to a forest. Other studies have reported that holdings within 300 m of a forested boundary probably incur the greatest risk of crop raids. Two other factors that may influence susceptibility to green monkeys raids crops were also examined: the types of crops and types of preventive measures used directly. The effect of these two factors on vervet crop raids not simple. However, the distance is a property of the edge of the forest is an important factor influencing vervet crop raids. two hundred respondents gardens m from the forest edge received significantly less crop looting of farms situated 100 or 50 meters (p = 0.040, SAJ et al 2001).

 

19. Bait damage

Longevity of zinc phosphide (ZP) on wheat bait was determined at the end of the "dry" and "rainy season", is Western Australia .. While the total rainfall during the two tests was 74 mm and 155 mm, substantial loss of ZP was recorded only after significant rainfall events. Regardless of the season, the loss of ZP bait applied in bait stations was minimal. The maximum loss registered was 17% and this occurred after exposure of 21 days during the wet season in bait stations were placed in the cultures. However, regardless of application method, ZP always remained sufficient in wheat bait. Theoretically it was lethal to rats for at least 8-14 days (Twigg et al., 2001).

20.Venezuela experience:

In Venezuela, lethal control wintering Dickcissels (Spiza Americana) is considered a threat to the survival of the species. To help farmers protect their crops of rice and sorghum and minimize Dickcissels murder a large number of these birds, alternative measures of non-lethal crop protection are needed. To this end, the responses of captive Dickcissels three chemicals bird repellents-(anthraquinone, methyl anthranilate and methiocarb) applied to rice seed. In a cup feeding trials, methiocarb treatments (0.05% g / G, 75% Mesurol applied as wettable powder) and anthraquinone (0.5%, applied as flight control) reduced consumption of rice by 70% compared with consumption by treatment. Other anthraquinone treatments (0.05,0.1%) and methyl authranilate (0.05%) were inrffective. In two-cup trials, with untreated millet as the alternative food, consumption of rice treated with 0.05 and 0.1% anthraquinone was reduced by 90% over previous levels. In general, Dickcissels responded to the repellents similarly to blackbird Red-winged (Agelaius phoeniceus). For flight control has been used successfully to reduce the use of rice fields blackbird in the U.S., the outlook is good for reducing of damage to rice Dickcissels repening successful in Venezuela, particularly if repellent use is coupled with the establishment of alternative feeding sites (Avery et al 2001). Deer carrots selected over all green manure crops.

 

21. Nilgai damage in India

Crops and nilgai damage has been widely reported in India. Are there Nilgai is increasing in this region. The lack of natural predators, overgrazing and deforestation protection of these animals in Hindu communities are the reasons for overcrowding. Acacia tree cover are generally used by nilgai as a refuge during the day but not food, what happens to crops raids at night and at night, leaping 6-7 feet high stone wall, barbed wire and fencing, living or dead plant material and any other thorny fences / dam protect the crop. Due to the habit of grazing and browsing both devour all kinds of farm species (both rabi and kharif crops.) It has been observed to eat less, but the loss of more by trampling and damaging, they are considered crop pests and farmers want to get ride of mammals of this pest unconventional. Farmers who drive them away with just making loud noise followed by fire crackers or air gun, through the following tractors, empty can or pumpkin dry full of small stones and connected with chains. Technically, carrots (boxes), fencing, trenches or power are suggested to mitigate the damage to crops. In Second, the animals could be translocated to wildlife sanctuaries of the sites you visit or serious overcrowding problems crop raids (Goyal et al 2000).

 

22. Pesticides and wildlife

A range of surveillance activities demonstrated impact of anticholinesterase pesticides in wildlife in the UK, and threats that are still evident from experiments in laboratory and field, along with the scale of use in the field. Along with other broad spectrum insecticides, organophosphates many have direct negative effects on non-target arthropods in farmland so you can make an indirect contribution to the effects of pesticides on farmland biodiversity. Anticholinesterase insecticides have lethal effects sublethal effects on aquatic fauna, however the story of the recent incidents of damage to river ecology due to wider use of synthetic pyrethroids sheep dips, illustrates the need to consider the implications of changes in the use of alternative products in the review of these insecticides (Record 2000).

The use-based flight control and methyl anthranilate anthraguinone based nontoxic avian foraging repellent we use to prevent crop damage crane. Thought both repellents are effective in deterring cranes from treated corn, neither has been tested on corn under field conditions. (Blackwell et al 2001).

oak seedlings were raised scientifically. The survival and surf the wild life damage was minimal when mixture of certain herbicides are used. Biologically and aesthetically, the procedure was very successful (Ezell et al 1999).

Pre-commercial thinning (forests are less prone to damage from moose (McLaren et al, 2000).

 

23. Using pesticides in conflict

Pesticides can cause harm to humans and beneficial organisms. A few of sublethal effects of pesticides on birds were studied to identify the biochemical characteristic responses that may be useful for exposure control sublethal levels in the field. The pesticides were used, demeton-S-methyl, (DSM), chlorpyrifos, chlorfenviphos, triazophos, pirimicarb, methiocarb and Permethrin. Blood was collected before dosing, and 2,6,24,48 and 72 hours after treatment of the brachial vein of birds. The enzyme activities were analyzed in plasma or Serum samples obtained. The analysis used were GOT, TMS, GDH, SDH, GAMMA GT and Che. The results showed an increase in plasma and serum levels of GOT and gamma GT- found in all animals treated with the pesticide before. The level of cholinesterase in birds increased after treatment with permethrin. It was concluded that pesticides cause structural and functional changes in the liver and also measuring the above parameters can be useful activities to evaluate exposure and effects Sub-lethal pesticides on Fauna (Dahamna et al 2004).

24. IPM and crop losses

Queensland Sugar, the industry has recently implemented a comprehensive Integrated Pest Management (IPM) system to minimize crop losses from two rodent species AntiVir Rattus sordidus (cane rat) and Melomy burtoni (climbing rat). These species inflicted approximately $ 25 million damage to a major outbreak in the 1999-2000 seasons. Both of these rodents are listed as common wildlife under the Nature Conservation lists Queensland (Wildlife) Regulation 1994. The IPM program is based on understanding the ecology and biology of each species. It incorporates a monitoring program for large-scale to providing early warning of impending building rodent to avoid major outbreaks. The industry has also developed a memorandum of understanding with the Queensland State Government, industry that provides pest management needs, while providing a better system of accountability for making two of Queensland's native wildlife species. The consensus reached between the cooperating parties (The Bureau of Sugar Experiment Stations, CANEGROWERS, cane-based productivity-Services at the regional level, and the results can be negotiated between rural industry and environmental interests (Hunt et al 2004).

In the areas around Lake Mburo National Park, large wild animals wander in close proximity to human settlements. This poses a serious conflict in terms of damage to crops. Integration conservation with other land uses is difficult in the densely settled agricultural land surrounds a protected area where animals potentially problem, as is the case for several parks in Africa and Asia. The intensity of crop raiding was quantified through the use of crops random quadrants / plots and techniques area estimate of a portion of raided fields. The animal species concerned were documented from observations, footprints and other marks on the left behind. Three variables were analyzed as predictors of damage, human population density, distance of the park boundary and the station. This study presents information regarding the loss of crops in different seasons, the analysis of the variation in damage to crops and animal species in the loss of crops. A diverse set of animals fed on subsistence crops and analysis of crop damage revealed significant depreciation of crops by wild animals (Kagoro et al 2004).

 

 

 

25. Hawaii pests

The apple snail, P.canaliculata, is a freshwater aquatic snail native to South America originally imported Hawaii as pets for the aquarium trade, which were presented earlier in wetland parcels known as "lo", where taro (Colocasia esculenta) economic and cultural one crop is grown. Some people thought that the snails, to be edible, can be harvested as food, and that the increase of snails along with taro in the "Io" could bring additional revenue to the taro crop with minimal additional input. This introduction of the snails in the taro Lo'i " however, proved disastrous. Farmers did not take into account greed, reproductive capacity, and the rapid growth of the snails. Due to the ideal conditions in the taro lo'i, snails will multiply quickly and fed largely on taro shoots and calluses, in many cases, destruction a full crop before harvest time. Hindisight has shown that the snails are dissipated through the irrigation system throughout the lo'i "and then spread the surrounding wetlands. large breeding populations have been established in wetland areas on the islands of Hawai'e, Oahu, Kauai, Maui y. Some of these wetlands are wildlife reserves with state and federal mandates that restrict the potential of the methods of eradication. The information used will be installed P.canaliculata and taro both a full explanation of the challenges and opportunities this situation presents (Tamaru et al 2006).

 

26. Chemical repellents

chemical feeding repellents applied to ripening sunflower might help reduce blackbird (lcteridae) damages, which is a chronic agricultural seed harvest of information. However, the cost is high for developing and registering new repellents for use agricultural use. In 2003 and 2004, we evaluated feeding repellency of 8 pesticides registered by the Environmental Protection Agency for use in sunflower. Cage blackbirds Red-winged (Agelaius phoeniceus) were fed with shelled sunflower seeds treated with the pesticides five pyrethroid insecticides, an organochlorine, organophosphate one and one gungicide. Compared with untreated refernce groups, feeding rates were reduced to four of the five pyrethroid insecticides. Organophosphates (chlorpyrifos) however, significantly reduced feeding rates. More research on the effects of repellency of this product in the field efficacy trials is probably justified on the basis of the results of experiments in our cage. According to the timetable for implementation, insecticides registered with blackbird feeding repellency might provide additional economic benefits to sunflower growers through the use of dual purpose ((Linz et al 2006).

27. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs)

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) have spread throughout the global environment to threaten human health and damage ecosystems, with evidence of POPs contamination in wildlife, human blood and breast milk documented worldwide. Based on data from the U.S. Food And Drug Administration, this article provides a brief overview of POPs residues in food common in the U.S. food supply. The analysis focuses on 12 chemical compounds now targeted for an international phase under the Stockholm Convention on Persistent persistent organic pollutants. The information available indicates that the residues of POPs are present in virtually all categories of foods, including baked products, fruits, vegetables, meat, poultry and dairy products. Residues of five or more persistent toxic chemicals in a single food item are not unusual, with POPs most common pesticides DDT (and metabolites, such as DDE) and dieldrin. Estimated daily doses of dieldrin alone exceed United States Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Agency Toxic Substances Disease Control reference dose for children. Given the widespread presence of POPs in the food supply and the serious health risks associated with even very small levels of exposure, prevention of further contamination of food should be a national health policy priority in all countries. Implementation of the Stockholm Convention to prevent further accumulation of toxic chemicals persistent food. Early ratification and rapid implementation of this treaty should be an urgent priority for all governments (Schafer et al 2002).

28. Netherlands experience

Traditionally, pink-footed goose Anser footed winter in Denmark, the Netherlands Netherlands and Belgium have used the Danish site only during the mild winter, moving rapidly south in case of cold spells. Since the 1980s, a number growing geese have been maintained on the basis of Danish winter despite cold snaps, feeding on winter wheat pasture represents Due to a food source safe and profitable, even in severe winter, the recent change in agricultural practice has encouraged the development of a new strategy wintering pink-footed geese, allowing northward expansion of its range of winter. Potentially, this will increase conflict and crop damage can lead to higher population growth (Therkidsen et al 2000).

test site near Huron, California, the San Joaquin Valley 12 to 23 January 1999, to determine effective flight control TM (50% anthraquinone) and Mesurol R (75% methiocarb) in the prevention of damage to lettuce seedlings lark. Flight Control TM (FC) and R Mesurol were evaluated as foliar application rates of 2.79 and 2.27 kg ha-1, respectively. horned lark damage to lettuce seedlings treated with anthraquinone was higher (p = 0.015) than for R methiocarb, 60 vs. 20%, respectively, and plants in control plots were 100% destroyed. While this level Damage is likely to be unacceptable for producers of lettuce, it must be remembered that the situation led to a compound of the birds artificially high pressure in the crop. Others studies in open fields under a normal pressure of birds are guaranteed (York et al 2000).

 

29. Ozone injury

The incidence and severity of foliar ozone visible injury on cutleaf coneflower (Rudbeckia laciniata L.) and crown-pan (Verbesina occidentalis Walt.) Were determined. Therefore, a matter of consideration that the damage zone can damage vegetation damaged by shipping, or even cut. Ozone injury was greatest in the lower leaves for both species sampled with more than 95% of the injured leaves occurring in the bottom 50% of the plant. This is the first report of foliar ozone injury on these plant species in situ, in the Park, demonstrating the great variability in the expression of symptoms over time, and within and between populations (Chappelka et al 2003).

 

30. Protected arrears and humans

The knowledge of the conflicts between people and protected areas is required for the design of conservation strategies sustainable management of protected areas. The study identifies the causes of conflicts between local people and the Conservation Area Wildlife Benous (CPCB), which includes Benous National Park, in northern Cameroon. informal interviews and questionnaires were administered to 114 families in three communities, and staff the park to 17 and seven professional hunting guides between July and October 1997. crop damage affected 86% of the households surveyed, 31% of agricultural income lost on average, and with the damage varies significantly between communities. legged elephants, baboons, monkeys. Warthogs and green parrots for 97% of the damage to crops, with Corn and millet are staple foods are most affected. Of those polled on 27% depletion of gained experience, with 18% of the livestock lost income on average. The civet cat was the main predator. The participation of local people in illegal activities, lack of access to natural resources, and damage caused by wildlife have been identified as major causes of conflict. Local people, park staff and professional hunting guides were diverse and divergent perceptions on causes of conflict and made several suggestions for reducing wildlife damage including draft animals and scaring controlled. We conclude that, under policy Current wildlife, conflicts between people and CPCB (Conservation Area Wildlife Bonous) is difficult to solve. To reduce conflict and promote conservation sustainable, it is suggested that co-management of wildlife involving all stakeholders, the establishment of teams of crop damage control, and promotion materials benefits for local people. There may be a requirement for site-specificity of management strategies (Weladji et al 2003).

 

31. The low use of technology to prevent damage

It is suggested that an approach integrated community-based, low technology approach is the most sustainable solution to this conflict (Osborn et al 2003).

Blackbirds (lcteridae) annually damage U.S. $ 5-8 million ripening sunflower in the northern Great Plains. Baiting blackbirds with rice avicide treatment during spring migration might reduce the regional populations breeding. birds can be successfully treated with baited with rice avicide placed on corn stubble (Linz et al 2003).

the accumulation of plant debris is considered a key factor determining the abundance of small mammals and the potential damage in low-till farming ((Sterman et al 2003) areas.

The projected total value of losses yield of crops due to wildlife damage to villages in the buffer zone Garhwal Himalaya in about Rs.5 38 620 (U.S. $ 15,389). Also food grain, horticultural crops ie apple, also suffered. Mayor wildlife

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Snipe Hunt Tragedy